Social Science
Emergent geographies of chronic air pollution governancein Southeast Asia: Transboundary publics in Singapore
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Helena Varkkey
Helena Varkkey
Department of Internationaland Strategic Studies, Universiti Malaya,50603
Peer Reviewed
Abstract
Haze is a product of in‐situ biomass fires that becomes mobile as it moves across state boundaries in Southeast Asia. The literature on the governance of transboundary air commons has largely been fixed at the national or supranational scalar of reference. Hence, successes and failures tend to be evaluated based on policy and diplomatic (non)progress. This paper contributes to recent literature that argues that haze should be treated as a challenge and opportunity for transboundary governance and not merely transnational governance. Transboundary governance does not restrict the study of cross‐border relations to national scales of analysis but encompasses resource connections that traverse borders at all scales of governance. This paper focuses on Singapore, a state where biomass fires do not occur but where the effects of haze are acutely felt. Among ASEAN member states, Singapore has been viewed as a particularly active player in region‐wide governance on haze. However, the role of non‐state environmental stewardship initiatives in pathfinding, nudging, and signalling state, corporate and regional actors towards emergent transboundary governance arrangements have been underplayed. By focusing on the efforts of the Singapore Institute of International Affairs (SIIA), Singapore Environment Council (SEC), and People's Movement to Stop Haze (PM Haze), this paper explores how transboundary publics can fill policy gaps in transnational haze governance regimes. As a highly depoliticised city‐state, Singapore's experience serves as a microcosm for ways forward within the broader ASEAN geopolitical culture favouring depoliticised ‘engaged non‐indifference’.
Key Questions
What is the main focus of the article on transboundary haze governance in Southeast Asia?
The article focuses on the governance of transboundary haze in Southeast Asia, particularly in Singapore. It examines how non-state actors, such as NGOs and civil society groups, contribute to addressing the haze issue by bridging policy gaps and fostering transboundary governance arrangements. The study highlights the role of Singapore as a key site for transboundary commons and explores the efforts of organizations like the Singapore Institute of International Affairs (SIIA), Singapore Environment Council (SEC), and People's Movement to Stop Haze (PM Haze) in shaping governance responses to haze pollution.
Why is transboundary haze a significant issue in Southeast Asia?
Transboundary haze is a significant issue in Southeast Asia due to its severe health, economic, and environmental impacts. The haze, caused by biomass fires in peatlands and forests, travels across borders, affecting multiple countries. It leads to respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses, disrupts daily life, and causes economic losses. The issue is exacerbated by regional climatic conditions and human activities like land clearing for agriculture. Despite decades of regional cooperation, haze remains a chronic problem, necessitating innovative governance approaches.
What is the difference between transnational and transboundary governance?
Transnational governance focuses on cross-border relations at the national or supranational level, often involving inter-state cooperation. In contrast, transboundary governance encompasses resource connections that traverse borders at all scales, including sub-national, national, and regional levels. It involves a wider range of actors, such as state agencies, NGOs, and private sector entities, working across multiple sectors to address environmental challenges like haze pollution.
What role do non-state actors play in transboundary haze governance?
Non-state actors, such as NGOs and civil society groups, play a crucial role in transboundary haze governance by filling policy gaps, fostering collaboration, and advocating for sustainable practices. In Singapore, organizations like the SIIA, SEC, and PM Haze engage in activities such as Track II diplomacy, public advocacy, and community engagement to address haze pollution. They work across scales and sectors, complementing state efforts and influencing corporate behavior to reduce haze-related activities.
How does Singapore's geopolitical context influence its approach to haze governance?
Singapore's geopolitical context, characterized by its small size, proximity to haze-prone regions, and strong economic ties with neighboring countries, shapes its approach to haze governance. As a city-state with limited natural resources, Singapore is highly vulnerable to haze pollution. Its government has adopted a proactive stance, enacting laws like the Transboundary Haze Pollution Act (THPA) and supporting regional initiatives. However, the depoliticized nature of Singapore's civil society and its alignment with ASEAN's non-interference principles also influence how non-state actors operate within this framework.
What are the key strategies used by Singaporean NGOs to address haze pollution?
Singaporean NGOs use several strategies to address haze pollution, including: 1. **Track II Diplomacy**: Facilitating informal dialogues between governments, businesses, and experts to foster regional cooperation. 2. **Public Advocacy**: Raising awareness among consumers and businesses about sustainable practices, such as using certified sustainable palm oil. 3. **Community Engagement**: Working directly with peatland communities in Indonesia and Malaysia to promote sustainable livelihoods and peatland restoration. 4. **Market-Based Approaches**: Encouraging companies to adopt sustainable practices through certification schemes and consumer pressure.
What is the significance of the Transboundary Haze Pollution Act (THPA) in Singapore?
The Transboundary Haze Pollution Act (THPA) is significant because it extends Singapore's jurisdiction to hold companies accountable for haze pollution caused by their operations in neighboring countries. Enacted in 2014, the THPA allows Singapore to impose fines on companies whose activities contribute to haze within its borders. This law represents a novel approach to transboundary governance, as it targets private sector actors directly, rather than relying solely on inter-state cooperation.
How do Singaporean NGOs collaborate with regional and international actors?
Singaporean NGOs collaborate with regional and international actors through initiatives like the ASEAN Track II network, which facilitates informal diplomacy and policy exchanges. They also engage with international organizations, such as the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and work with regional NGOs and local communities in Indonesia and Malaysia. These collaborations enable Singaporean NGOs to influence regional policies, share best practices, and implement on-the-ground projects to address haze pollution.
What are the challenges faced by non-state actors in transboundary haze governance?
Non-state actors face several challenges in transboundary haze governance, including: 1. **Political Sensitivities**: Navigating the geopolitical culture of non-interference in ASEAN, which limits direct criticism of neighboring countries. 2. **Resource Constraints**: Limited funding and capacity to implement large-scale projects. 3. **Corporate Resistance**: Overcoming resistance from companies that may prioritize profits over sustainable practices. 4. **Coordination Issues**: Ensuring effective collaboration among diverse stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, and local communities.
What are the broader implications of Singapore's approach to transboundary haze governance?
Singapore's approach to transboundary haze governance has broader implications for regional environmental governance. It demonstrates how non-state actors can complement state efforts, bridge policy gaps, and foster multi-scalar, multi-sectoral collaboration. By leveraging its position as a regional hub, Singapore can influence corporate behavior and promote sustainable practices across borders. This approach also highlights the potential for other countries in Southeast Asia to adopt similar strategies, contributing to more effective and inclusive governance of transboundary environmental issues.
